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Test configurations

Indentation (Stiffness)

An indentation test is a very convenient way to measure the mechanical properties of a sample non-destructively. Unlike the unconfined compression test, where a sample needs to be harvested from the surface, indentation maintains the mechanical environment of the sample at the location of interest and its interaction with the surrounding material. This allows the test to be repeated. In this test configuration, a spherical indenter is pressed against the sample perpendicularly to its surface while the applied displacement and resulting load are recorded. Using a theoretical model, it is possible to calculate material stiffness from the stress-strain curve.

Recommended tester (1)

Accessories (14)

Case studies (8)

Related resources (10)

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January 31, 2025 · Journal Articles

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2024 · Meeting abstracts & presentations

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2024 · Journal Articles

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Computed tomography imaging and functional in silico modelling of cartilage, bone and tissue engineered cartilage constructs

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2024 · Meeting abstracts & presentations

Improved Computational Modeling of the Mechanical Behavior of Sutured Human Meniscal Tissue under Combined Loading [English translation]

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XIII Congreso del Capítulo Español de la Sociedad Europea de Biomecánica (ESB), Pamplona, 28–29 October 2024. Original abstract: Spanish (español). English title is an identified translation. Separate communication from the 2024 CIBIM full paper and 2025 journal article.

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2024 · Journal Articles

In situ assembly of an injectable cardiac stimulator

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Nat Commun 15, 6774 (2024), Published: 08 August 2024

11 citations · 10 in 2025–2026

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2024 · Journal Articles

Photon-counting in dual-contrast-enhanced computed tomography: a proof-of-concept quantitative biomechanical assessment of articular cartilage

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Scientific Reports volume 14, Article number: 29956 (2024) Published: 02 December 2024

2 citations · 2 in 2025–2026

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2024 · Journal Articles

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Nat Commun 15, 8379 (2024), Published: 27 September 2024

27 citations · 27 in 2025–2026

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2024 · Journal Articles

Site-specific elastic and viscoelastic biomechanical properties of healthy and osteoarthritic human knee joint articular cartilage

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13 citations · 13 in 2025–2026

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2023 · Thesis

Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Impacted Cartilage: In-Vitro and In-Vivo Studies

Hessam Noori-Dokht

Purdue University. PhD dissertation, August 2023. Original abstract: English. Two Scholar notices C0207 and C1080 represent this same dissertation: exact title, same author with reversed compound surname, same university. Mach-1 methods concern bovine cartilage; rabbit impact studies used a separate drop tower.

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2023 · Journal Articles

Correlations between elastic modulus and ultrashort echo time (UTE) adiabatic T1P relaxation time (UTE-Adiab-T1P) in Achilles tendons and entheses

Saeed Jerban; Amir Masoud Afsahi; Yajun Ma; Dina Moazamian; Sheronda Statum; Alecio F. Lombardi; Lena Kakos; Erik Dorthe; Daryll Dlima; Jiang Du; Christine B. Chung; Eric Y. Chang

Journal of Biomechanics, Volume 160, 2023, 111825, ISSN 0021-9290, Published: November 2023

6 citations · 2 in 2025–2026

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2023 · Journal Articles

FLIM imaging revealed spontaneous osteogenic differentiation of stem cells on gradient pore size tissue-engineered constructs

Svetlana Rodimova; Artem Mozherov; Vadim Elagin; Maria Karabut; Ilya Shchechkin; Dmitry Kozlov; Dmitry Krylov; Alena Gavrina; Vladislav Kaplin; Evgenii Epifanov; Nikita Minaev; Ksenia Bardakova; Anna Solovieva; Peter Timashev; Elena Zagaynova; Daria Kuznetsova

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7 citations · 6 in 2025–2026

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2023 · Journal Articles

Load-induced fluid pressurisation in hydrogel systems before and after reinforcement by melt-electrowritten fibrous meshes

Eng Kuan Moo; Mohammadhossein Ebrahimi; Andrei Hrynevich; Mylène de Ruijter; Miguel Castilho; Jos Malda; Rami K. Korhonen

Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, Volume 143, 2023, 105941, ISSN 1751-6161, Published:

10 citations · 7 in 2025–2026

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2023 · Journal Articles

Mechanical Behaviour of Plantar Adipose Tissue: From Experimental Tests to Constitutive Analysis

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BibTeX, EndNote, RIS, Bioengineering 2024, 11, 42, Published: 31 December 2023

9 citations · 8 in 2025–2026

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2023 · Journal Articles

Visible and Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Enables Differentiation of Normal and Early Osteoarthritic Human Knee Joint Articular Cartilage

Awuniji Linus; Petri Tanska; Jaakko K. Sarin; Ervin Nippolainen; Virpi Tiitu; Janne.T. A. Mäkelä; Juha Töyräs; Rami K. Korhonen; Mika E. Mononen; Isaac O. Afara

Annals of Biomedical Engineering, Published: 18 June 2023

21 citations · 13 in 2025–2026

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June 2022 · Meeting abstracts & presentations

Biomechanics of articular cartilage degraded with MMP-1 and MMP-9 mimicking early-stage knee OA

Allison Mixon; Tanvir R. Faisal

M2D2022, 9th International Conference on Mechanics and Materials in Design, Funchal, 26–30 June 2022, pp.893–894, paper 18265. Exact proceedings PDF text read through the Web PDF reader: title, two authors, full original ABSTRACT and methods on both pages. Local download currently returns HTTP 500; PDF optional, not falsely marked archived. This is a distinct conference communication from the three-author JMBBM 2022 article already in SQL; no methods transferred from that article. The source explicitly names Mach-1 v500c and juvenile bovine cartilage. Abstract transcribed in full without editorial paraphrasing; figure omitted.

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January 6, 2022 · Journal Articles

Generation of double-layered equine mesenchymal stromal cell-derived osteochondral constructs

Cristóbal López-Jiménez; Sarah I.M. Lepage; Loraine L.Y. Chiu; Stephen D. Waldman; Matthew K. Vickaryous; Rita A. Kandel; Thomas G. Koch

Journal Articles, 2022. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcjp.2021.100036

1 citation · 0 in 2025–2026

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2022 · Journal Articles

3D bioprinting of nanoparticle-laden hydrogel scaffolds with enhanced antibacterial and imaging properties

Andrea S. Theus; Liqun Ning; Gabriella Kabboul; Boeun Hwang; Martin L. Tomov; Christopher N. LaRock; Holly Bauser-Heaton; Morteza Mahmoudi; Vahid Serpooshan

ISCIENCE (2022), doi: https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.104947, Accepted Date: 11 August 2022

34 citations · 15 in 2025–2026

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2022 · Journal Articles

A defined road to tracheal reconstruction: laser structuring and cell support for rapid clinic translation

Alexey Fayzullin; Georgiy Vladimirov; Anastasia Kuryanova; Elvira Gafarova; Sergei Tkachev; Nastasia Kosheleva; Elena Istranova; Leonid Istranov; Yuri Efremov; Ivan Novikov; Polina Bikmulina; Kirill Puzakov; Pavel Petrov; Ivan Vyazankin; Andrey Nedorubov; Tatyana Khlebnikova; Valentina Kapustina; Pavel Trubnikov; Nikita Minaev; Aleksandr Kurkov; Valery Royuk; Vasily Mikhailov; Dmitriy Parshin; Anna Solovieva; Marina Lipina; Alexey Lychagin; Peter Timashev; Andrey Svistunov; Victor Fomin; Anastasia Shpichka

BMC, Stem Cell Research & Therapy volume 13, Article number: 317 (2022), Published: 16 July 2022

13 citations · 4 in 2025–2026

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2022 · Journal Articles

A novel workflow to fabricate a patient-specific 3D printed accommodative foot orthosis with personalized latticed metamaterial

Yuri F Hudak; Jing-Sheng Li; Scott Cullum; Brian M Strzelecki; Chris Richburg; G Eli Kaufman; Daniel Abrahamson; Jeffrey T. Heckman; Beth Ripley; Scott Telfer; William R Ledoux; Brittney C Muir; Patrick M Aubin

Medical Engineering & Physics, Volume 104, 2022, 103802, ISSN 1350-4533, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medengphy.2022.103802.

53 citations · 33 in 2025–2026

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2022 · Preprints

Cartilage-penetrating hyaluronic acid hydrogel preserves tissue content and reduces chondrocyte catabolism

Michael A. Kowalski; Lorenzo M. Fernandes; Kyle E. Hammond; Sameh Labib; Hicham Drissi; Jay M. Patel

bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.05.17.492335; this version posted May 19, 2022

23 citations · 11 in 2025–2026

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2022 · Journal Articles

Fabrication of Curli Fiber-PEDOT:PSS Biomaterials with Tunable Self-Healing, Mechanical, and Electrical Properties

Catrina Huyer; Daniel Modafferi; Masoud Aminzare; Juliana Ferraro; Zahra Abdali; Sophia Roy; Dalia Jane Saldanha; Saadia Wasim; Johan Alberti; Shurui Feng; Fabio Cicoira; Noémie-Manuelle Dorval Courchesne

ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 2022, XXXX, XXX, XXX-XXX, Publication Date: June 10, 2022

16 citations · 7 in 2025–2026

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2022 · Journal Articles

Grading cartilage damage with diffuse reflectance spectroscopy: optical markers and mechanical properties

Nataliya R. Rovnyagina; Gleb S. Budylin; Pavel V. Dyakonov; Yuri M. Efremov; Marina M. Lipina; Yuliya R. Goncharuk; Emirkhan E. Murdalov; David A. Pogosyan; Denis A. Davydov; Alexander A. Korneev; Natalia B. Serejnikova; Karen A. Mikaelyan; Stanislav A. Evlashin; Vladimir A. Lazarev; Alexey V. Lychagin; Peter S. Timashev; Evgeny A. Shirshin

Wiley Online Library, Journal of biophotonics, published: 06 September 2022

9 citations · 3 in 2025–2026

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2022 · Preprints

Methacrylate-Modified Gold Nanoparticles Enable Non-Invasive Monitoring of Photocrosslinked Hydrogel Scaffolds

Lan Li; Carmen J. Gil; Tyler A. Finamore; Connor J. Evans; Martin L. Tomov; Liqun Ning; Andrea Theus; Gabriella Kabboul; Vahid Serpooshan; Ryan K. Roeder

bioRxiv, Preprint, Published: January 28, 2022 doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.01.26.477960

1 citation · 0 in 2025–2026

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2022 · Preprints

Signaling modality within gp130 receptor enhances tissue regeneration

Ruzanna Shkhyan; Candace Flynn; Emma Lamoure; Ben Van Handel; Arijita Sarkar; Jinxiu Li; Jesse York; Nicholas Banks; Robert Van der Horst; Nancy Q. Liu; Siyoung Lee; Paul Bajaj; Kanagasabai Vadivel; Hans I-Chen Harn; Thomas Lozito; Jay R. Lieberman; Cheng-Ming Chuong; Mark S. Hurtig; Denis Evseenko

bioRxiv, Posted January 05, 2022

1 citation · 0 in 2025–2026

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2022 · Journal Articles

Site- and Zone-Dependent Changes in Proteoglycan Content and Biomechanical Properties of Bluntly and Sharply Grooved Equine Articular Cartilage

Ali Mohammadi; Nikae C. R. te Moller; Mohammadhossein Ebrahimi; Saskia Plomp; Harold Brommer; P. René van Weeren; Janne T. A. Mäkelä; Juha Töyräs; Rami K. Korhonen

Ann Biomed Eng. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 35754073., Published: 26 June 2022

8 citations · 5 in 2025–2026

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2022 · Journal Articles

TRPV4 activation enhances compressive properties and glycosaminoglycan deposition of equine neocartilage sheets

Cristóbal López-Jiménez; Loraine L.Y. Chiu; Stephen D. Waldman; Farshid Guilak; Thomas G. Koch

Osteoarthritis and Cartilage Open, Volume 4, Issue 2, 2022, 100263, ISSN 2665-9131, Published: June2022

3 citations · 2 in 2025–2026

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October 27, 2021 · Journal Articles

Lightweight and flexible conducting polymer sponges and hydrogels for electromagnetic interference shielding

Biporjoy Sarkar; Xinda Li; Eric Quenneville; Louis-Philippe Carignan; Ke Wu; Fabio Cicoira

Journal of Materials Chemistry C. 2021;9(46):16558–16565. First published 27 October 2021; issue 14 December 2021. DOI: 10.1039/d1tc04008a

35 citations · 11 in 2025–2026

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2021 · Journal Articles

Can UVA-light-activated riboflavin-induced collagen crosslinking be transferred from ophthalmology to spine surgery? A feasibility study on bovine intervertebral disc

Ioannis Vasilikos; Graciosa Q. Teixeira; Andreas Seitz; Julia Nothelfer; Julian Haas; Hans-Joachim Wilke; Boris Mizaikoff; Jürgen Beck; Ulrich Hubbe; Cornelia Neidlinger-Wilke

PLoS ONE 16(6): e0252672. https://doi.org/ 10.1371/journal.pone.0252672

5 citations · 2 in 2025–2026

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2021 · Thesis

Fabrication of Curli-PEDOT:PSS Composites for Bioelectronics

Catrina Huyer

McGill University. Master of Engineering thesis, August 2021. Original abstract: English. Scholar export used the alternative title Fabrication of Protein-polymer Composites for Bioelectronics; the official catalogue links this thesis.

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2021 · Journal Articles

Long-term repair of porcine articular cartilage using cryopreservable, clinically compatible human embryonic stem cell-derived chondrocytes

Frank A. Petrigliano; Nancy Q. Liu; Siyoung Lee; Jade Tassey; Arijita Sarkar; Yucheng Lin; Liangliang Li; Yifan Yu; Dawei Geng; Jiankang Zhang; Ruzanna Shkhyan; Jacob Bogdanov; Ben Van Handel; Gabriel B. Ferguson; Youngjoo Lee; Svenja Hinderer; Kuo-Chang Tseng; Aaron Kavanaugh; J. Gage Crump; April D. Pyle; Katja Schenke-Layland; Fabrizio Billi; Liming Wang; Jay Lieberman; Mark Hurtig; Denis Evseenko

npj Regenerative Medicine. 2021;6(1):77. doi: 10.1038/s41536-021-00187-3

17 citations · 6 in 2025–2026

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2021 · Journal Articles

Machine learning augmented near-infrared spectroscopy: In vivo follow-up of cartilage defects

J.K. Sarin; N.C.R. te Moller; A. Mohammadi; M. Prakash; J. Torniainen; H. Brommer; E. Nippolainen; R. Shaikh; J.T.A. Mäkelä; R.K. Korhonen; P.R. van Weeren; I.O. Afara; J. Töyräs

Osteoarthritis and Cartilage, Volume 29, Issue 3, 2021, Pages 423-432, ISSN 1063-4584, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2020.12.007.

19 citations · 2 in 2025–2026

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2021 · Journal Articles

Structural, compositional, and functional effects of blunt and sharp cartilage damage on the joint: A 9‐month equine groove model study

Nikae C. R. te Moller; Ali Mohammadi; Saskia Plomp; Filipe M. Serra Bragança; Martijn Beukers; Behdad Pouran; Isaac O. Afara; Ervin Nippolainen; Janne T. A. Mäkelä; Rami K. Korhonen; Juha Töyräs; Harold Brommer; P. René van Weeren

J Orthop Res. Accepted Author Manuscript. https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.24971

10 citations · 2 in 2025–2026

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2020 · Journal Articles

Photochemically Activated Notch Signaling Hydrogel Preferentially Differentiates Human Derived Hepatoblasts to Cholangiocytes

Muhammad Rizwan; Ana Fokina; Tove Kivijärvi; Mina Ogawa; Markus Kufleitner; Onofrio Laselva; Laura J. Smith; Christine E. Bear; Shinichiro Ogawa; Gordon Keller; Molly S. Shoichet

Advanced Functional Materials. First published: 23 October 2020 https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202006116

26 citations · 7 in 2025–2026

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November 25, 2019 · Journal Articles

Dissolving used rubber tires

Sijia Zheng; Mengchen Liao; Yang Chen; Michael A. Brook

Green Chemistry 22 (2020), 94–102. First published online 25 November 2019. Original publisher PDF, retrieved from the open-access copy indexed by Semantic Scholar. Methods specify hemispherical indentation for Young’s modulus. Indentation trajectory/axis mode not specified; the current Indentation (Stiffness) category describes the stiffness measurement, not proof of uniaxial motion. No 3D normal mapping, hardness or active temperature-control claim.

45 citations · 17 in 2025–2026

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2019 · Journal Articles

Multi-modal characterization of polymeric gels to determine the influence of testing method on observed elastic modulus

David M. Kingsley; Caitlin H. McCleery; Christopher D.L. Johnson; Michael T.K. Bramson; Deniz Rende; Ryan J. Gilbert; David T. Corr

Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, available online 10 January 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2019.01.003

33 citations · 15 in 2025–2026

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2018 · Journal Articles

In Situ Cross-Linking of Poly (vinyl alcohol)/Graphene Oxide–Polyethylene Glycol Nanocomposite Hydrogels as Artificial Cartilage Replacement: Intercalation Structure, Unconfined Compressive Behavior, and Biotribological Behaviors

Yeqiao Meng; Lin Ye; Phil Coates; Peter Twigg

J. Phys. Chem. C, 2018, 122 (5), pp 3157–3167 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.7b12465

75 citations · 9 in 2025–2026

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2017 · Meeting abstracts & presentations

Changes in Free Calcium Alter the Mechanical Properties of the Intervertebral Disc

I. Hadjab; M.P. Grant; L.M. Epure; M. Garon; E. Quenneville; J. Anthoniou; F. Mwale; M.D. Buschmann

International Conference on the Mechanics of Biomaterials and Tissues, Hawaii, USA, 1 2 Dec 2017, Podium O.48. Presented by E. Quenneville

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2017 · Journal Articles

Quantitative mechanical assessment of the whole prostate gland ex vivo using dynamic instrumented palpation

Steven J Hammer; Daniel W Good; Paul Scanlan; Javier Palacio-Torralba; Simon Phipps; Grant D Stewart; Will Shu; Yuhang Chen; S Alan McNeill; Robert L Reuben

Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part H: Journal of Engineering in Medicine. 2017.

8 citations · 0 in 2025–2026

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December 19, 2016 · Journal Articles

Formation of Hyaline Cartilage Tissue by Passaged Human Osteoarthritic Chondrocytes

Vanessa J. Bianchi; Joanna F. Weber; Stephen D. Waldman; David Backstein; Rita A. Kandel

Tissue Engineering Part A. 2017;23(3-4):156–165. DOI:10.1089/ten.tea.2016.0262. Epub2016Dec19. Original article explicitly reprinted in Bianchi2019doctoral thesis Chapter2; methods verified in declared article reprint.

33 citations · 4 in 2025–2026

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2016 · Journal Articles

Addition of Mesenchymal Stem Cells to Autologous Platelet-Enhanced Fibrin Scaffolds in Chondral Defects: Does It Enhance Repair?

Laurie R. Goodrich; Albert C. Chen; Natasha M. Werpy; Ashley A. Williams; John D. Kisiday; Alvin W. Su; Esther Cory; Paul S. Morley; C. Wayne McIlwraith; Robert L. Sah; Constance R. Chu

The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American volume 98(1), 23–34, 6 January 2016. Original abstract: English.

63 citations · 2 in 2025–2026

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2016 · Journal Articles

Guidelines for an optimized indentation protocol for measurement of cartilage stiffness - The effects of spatial variation and indentation parameters

Parisa R. Moshtagh; Behdad Pouran; Nicoline M. Korthagen; Amir A. Zadpoor; Harrie Weinans

Journal of Biomechanics 49(14) · September 2016 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.09.020

39 citations · 4 in 2025–2026

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2014 · Meeting abstracts & presentations

Correlation of Non-destructive Electromechanical Probe (Arthro-BST) Assessment with Histological Scores, Biochemical Composition and Mechanical Properties in Human Knee Joints

Sim S; Chevrier A; Quenneville E; Garon M; Buschmann MD

Transactions of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society, New Orleans, LA, USA, Poster 0439, 2014

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2014 · Journal Articles

Growth Factor Stimulation Improves the Structure and Properties of Scaffold-Free Engineered Auricular Cartilage Constructs

Renata G. Rosa; Paulo P. Joazeiro; Juares Bianco; Manuela Kunz; Joanna F. Weber; Stephen D. Waldman

PLoS ONE 9(8): e105170. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105170. (2014)

37 citations · 2 in 2025–2026

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2014 · Journal Articles

Low Magnitude High Frequency Vibration Accelerated Cartilage Degeneration but Improved Epiphyseal Bone Formation in Anterior Cruciate Ligament Transect Induced Osteoarthritis Rat Model

J. Qin; S.K.-H. Chow; A. Guo; W.-N. Wong; K.-S. Leung; W.-H. Cheung

Osteoarthritis and Cartilage. July 2014, Vol.22(7):1061–1067. (2014)

21 citations · 2 in 2025–2026

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2013 · Journal Articles

Supplementation with platelet-rich plasma improves the in vitro formation of tissue-engineered cartilage with enhanced mechanical properties

Massimo Petrera; J.N. Amritha De Croos; Jonathan Iu; Mark Hurtig; Rita A. Kandel; John S. Theodoropoulos

Arthroscopy : the journal of arthroscopic & related surgery : official publication of the Arthroscopy Association of North America and the International Arthroscopy Association. 2013;29(10):1685-1692.

36 citations · 4 in 2025–2026

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2012 · Journal Articles

Association of 3-dimensional cartilage and bone structure with articular cartilage properties in and adjacent to autologous osteochondral grafts after 6 and 12 months in a goat model

Elaine F. Chan; I-Ling Liu; Eric J. Semler; Harold M. Aberman; Timothy M. Simon; Albert C. Chen; Kate G. Truncale; Robert L. Sah

Cartilage, 3(3), 255-266. (2012)

17 citations · 2 in 2025–2026

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2012 · Journal Articles

Treatment of articular cartilage defects in the goat with frozen versus fresh osteochondral allografts: effects on cartilage stiffness, zonal composition, and structure at six months

Andrea L. Pallante; Simon Görtz; Albert C. Chen; Robert M. Healey; Derek C. Chase; Scott T. Ball; David Amiel; Robert L. Sah; William D. Bugbee

The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume. 2012;94(21):1984-1995.

69 citations · 6 in 2025–2026

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April 2010 · Journal Articles

The effect of intermittent static biaxial tensile strains on tissue engineered cartilage

Jackie C. Y. Fan; Stephen D. Waldman

Annals of Biomedical Engineering 38(4), 1672–1682 (2010). Complete original abstract retrieved from PubMed PMID 20087771 through Europe PMC. Exact article methods read in author-deposited text indexed on ResearchGate (Stephen D. Waldman); no local article PDF obtained. The thickness and indentation/relaxation characterization are separate from dead-weight biaxial stimulation. This is not the Fan thesis or the later JoVE protocol. Donor species remains unassigned pending the original sample-preparation section. Month precision comes from publisher citation metadata; no fabricated day.

39 citations · 1 in 2025–2026

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FAQ

What is Young's modulus E?
Intrinsic mechanical property of a material independent of its geometry. From the slope of the stress vs. strain graph during an unconfined compression and considering the geometry of the sample, we can calculate the Young's modulus.

Lab Module — Unconfined compression of hydrogel disks

Lab Module — Tension and rupture of skin

How does the "Elastic Model in Indentation" works?

This tool allows for the computing and visualizing of the shear modulus (MPa) and the Young’s modulus (MPa) from an indentation test performed using a spherical indenter (Figure 1). This model is well adapted for the mechanical characterization of samples (with critical diameter (width) at least 5 times the indenter diameter) bonded on a flat rigid support (at least 10 times stiffer than the sample), for example: any sheet of material lying on a rigid chamber base (limited sliding at the interface can be assumed) or a cartilage layer attached to a thick sub-chondral bone. A user license is required to obtain the results of the elastic model in indentation (Software Add-On, contact Biomomentum to obtain your license).

Results analysis is performed considering the indentation mechanics of an infinitely wide elastic layer bonded to a rigid half-space which has been developed as a model for the layered geometry of cartilage and subchondral bone (Hayes et al., 1972). (Figure 2) shows a schematic representing the modeled situation.

Many parameters need to be specified in order to calculate the different material properties.

1. Indenter Shape is:

  • Spherical
  • Plane-Ended Cylindrical

2. Indenter radius in mm.

3. Poisson ratio can be selected from a drop-down list (Figure 3)


4. Position @ contact is – defines the position of the left cursor:

  • to be curvefit – will automatically find the position contact which will give the smallest mean squared error (mse)
  • the value at t0 – will automatically take the position contact at the start of the curve
  • the following value (mm) – the user need to specify the value in the corresponding field next to the drop-down list
  • cursor position – the user can drag the left cursor to the wanted position contact

5. Sample thickness is the:

  • position @ contact – will automatically find the position at contact (position of the left cursor)
  • following value (mm) – the user need to specify the value in the corresponding field next to the drop-down list

6. Curvefit is up to – defines the position of the right cursor:

  • peak load – will automatically take the position of the peak load
  • delta load (unit) – the user need to specify the value of the desired delta load in the corresponding field next to the drop-down list
  • delta position (mm) – the user need to specify the value of the desired delta position in the corresponding field next to the drop-down list

The error on the estimation of the best curve representing the stress relaxation curve is calculated using the root of the mean squares (RMS) method and is displayed under “RMSE”. For example, (Figure 4) shows parameters used for the “Normal Indentation” (Mach-1 Motion) function in an indentation testing protocol on ovine articular surfaces. Corresponding results are shown in (Figure 1).

Spherical Indentation Guide – Mach-1 Mechanical Tester – Biomomentum

Mach-1 Analysis – Elastic Model in Indentation – Parameters

Mach-1 Analysis – Elastic Model in Indentation – Poisson ratio choices

Mach-1 Analysis – Elastic Model in Indentation – Cartilage & Subchondral bone

Mach-1 Analysis – Elastic Model in Indentation – Example

How does the Normal Indentation function works?
This function precisely detects the height and orientation of the surface of the sample at the XY position and records the load (for multiaxial load cell only) while simultaneously moving the three linear stages at different speeds in order to move a spherical indenter with a predefined displacement profile along a virtual axis normal to the surface of the sample.

Parameters:
Z-CONTACT CRITERIA - The user specifies the load to be reached until the stage stops moving. The software analyzes the load-displacement curve and moves the stage back to the position where the load had started to increase (twice the load cell resolution) (refer to Find Contact function description).
SCANNING GRID - Specify the distance "d" from the test location of the 4 control points at the surface in the vicinity of the test location (xi,yi) = (-d,0), (d,0), (0,-d) and (0,d).
INDENTATION AMPLITUDE - This is the amplitude of the normal indentation. Full stage range is allowed. A positive amplitude will move the indenter toward the sample (compression).
INDENTATION VELOCITY - This is the velocity of the normal indentation. Refer to the specifications of your Mach-1™ model to learn of the velocity range allowed. In Mach-1 Motion, the speed is always specified in absolute value terms.
RELAXATION TIME - This is the time period during which the position is maintained at the commanded amplitude (relaxation period).

Spherical Indentation Guide – Mach-1 Mechanical Tester – Biomomentum

Mach-1 Motion – Normal Indentation Window

How does the Find Contact function works?
The Find Contact function moves a stage until a predefined load variation (stop criteria) is measured by the load cell, then it analyses the load-displacement curve and repositions the stage based on the selected stage repositioning option. This function can be used, for example, to detect the exact location of a sample surface or the bottom of a testing chamber (in this case the stage must be moved very slowly to avoid overloading the load cell), or to place an indenter in contact with a sample using a predefined load.

Parameters:
STAGE AXIS - On multi-axis systems, the user must specify which axis will perform the “Find Contact”.
LOAD CELL AXIS - When using a multiple-axis load cell, the force component on which the stop criteria (load or torque) will be applied has to be selected.
Note: The selected “Load Cell Axis” must be consistent with the “Stage Axis”. For example, if the “Vertical (z)” stage axis is selected, the “Load Cell Axis” must have a component along the vertical axis, such as the load or force along the z axis, or the torque along the x or y axis for the multiple-axis load cell, in order to fulfill the “Stop Criteria” at some point. FAILURE TO MATCH THE “LOAD CELL AXIS” TO THE “STAGE AXIS” CAN RESULT IN DAMAGE TO THE LOAD CELL.
DIRECTION - Specify if the stage has to start moving in the positive or negative direction. With a positive displacement, a vertical stage will move down (compression), a horizontal stage will move right, and a rotation stage will move clockwise. Enter a negative value for stage displacements in opposite directions.
STAGE VELOCITY, MM/S - Specify the speed at which the stage will move. Refer to the specifications of your Mach-1 model to learn of the velocity range allowed. In Mach-1 Motion, the speed is always specified in absolute value terms.
CONTACT CRITERIA, GF - The user specifies the “Contact Criteria” which corresponds to the variation of the load (relative to the load measured when this function is executed) and not the absolute load. For instance, if the load cell indicates 10.0 g when the function “Find Contact” is executed with a 2.0 g “Contact Criteria”, the stage will move in the positive direction until the load cell reads 12.0 g, or in the negative direction until the load reads 8.0 g.
STAGE LIMIT, MM - The user specifies the “Stage Limit” which corresponds to the maximum relative displacement of the executed function. This serve as a safety precaution for the load cell. For example, in the case of indenting very soft materials, this parameter can serve as an emergency stop if the contact criteria is never met. The stage can stop before hitting the sample holder and possibly damaging the load cell.
STAGE REPOSITIONING - Depending on the predefined stage velocity, the stage will continue to move (position will overshoot), more or less, following the reaching of the stop criteria (hardware delay). In order to compensate for this overshoot, this function automatically analyses the load-displacement curve generated and repositions the stage based on the selected stage repositioning option. There are three stage repositioning options:
  1. “None”; the stage remains at the position where it has stopped (overshoot)
  2. “Stop Criteria”; the stage is repositioned where the load variation first corresponded to the stop criteria (overshoot compensation)
  3. “2X Load Resolution”; the stage is repositioned where the load variation first corresponded to twice the load cell resolution (surface detection)

Mach-1 Motion – Find Contact – Stage Repositioning

Mach-1 Motion – Find Contact Window

What is the plastic region?
Region of a stress-strain curve where the deformation undergone by a material remains after the load is removed. The plastic deformation is the permanent part of the deformation beyond the elastic limit of a material.

Lab Module — Tension and rupture of skin

LAB MODULE – Tension and Rupture of Skin – Student Version

What is the elastic region?
Linear region of a stress-strain curve where a material deformed under load or strain will return to its original shape when the stress is released. The slope of the elastic region is used in the calculation of the Young's modulus.

Lab Module — Tension and rupture of skin

LAB MODULE – Tension and Rupture of Skin – Student Version

What is the stiffness K?
A structural property of a sample. By plotting force vs. displacement during an unconfined compression and extracting the slope, we obtain the stiffness of the sample. In Mach-1 Analysis, the slope is in gram-force per mm (gf/mm). The gram-force is 1 gram multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity on Earth, exactly 9.80665 m/s².

Lab Module — Unconfined compression of hydrogel disks

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